Genetic polymorphisms in the prostate-specific antigen gene promoter

ABSTRACT

The present invention includes methods of identifying a subject at risk for increased cellular PSA production and/or prostate cancer by detecting the presence or absence of a genetic polymorphism in the prostate specific antigen gene.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to and is a continuation of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 12/720,818, filed Mar. 10, 2010, now allowed, whichis a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/846,127, filedAug. 28, 2007, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,718,372, which is a continuation ofU.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/740,662, filed Dec. 19, 2003,abandoned, the disclosure of each of which is incorporated by referenceherein in its entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to methods of detecting mutations in theprostate specific antigen gene. More specifically, the present inventionrelates to methods of detection of a genetic predisposition forincreased cellular PSA production and/or prostate cancer.

BACKGROUND OF INVENTION

Prostate specific antigen (PSA) is an androgen-regulated serine proteaseproduced by secretory epithelial cells lining the lumen of normalprostatic glands and the majority of prostate cancers. Sensabaugh,Isolation and characterization of a semen-specific protein from humanseminal plasma: A potential new marker for semen identification, JForensic Sci 1978; 23:106; Sinha et al., Immunoelectron microscopiclocalization of prostate-specific antigen in human prostate by theprotein A-gold complex. Cancer 1987; 60:1288-93; Stamey et al.,Prostate-specific antigen as a serum marker for andenocarcinoma of theprostate. N Engl J Med 1987; 317:909-16. The prostate is the majorsource of PSA. Sensabaugh; Stamey et al.; Hara et al., Immunochemicalcharacteristics of human specific component “γ-Sm”. Nippon HoigakuZasshi 1969; 23:333; Stamey et al., Prostate specific antigen in thediagnosis and treatment of adenocarcinoma of the prostate. Untreatedpatients. J Urology 1989; 141:1070-5. Because of the prostatespecificity of PSA expression it has become the most widely used markerfor prostate cancer screening and response to therapeutic intervention.Many clinicians consider a serum PSA concentration greater than 4 ng/mlto be abnormal and recommend further screening by needle biopsy uponsuch a finding. However, PSA testing has a low sensitivity andspecificity for detecting prostate cancer. Factors that can contributeto this low sensitivity and specificity include the presence of anynon-cancerous prostatic disease (i.e. prostatitis or benign prostatichyperplasia), age, and race.

There are three androgen response elements that are defined in the PSApromoter. Androgen response element (ARE) I and ARE II are located inthe proximal PSA promoter centered at −170 bp and −394 bp from thetranscription start site respectively. Xue et al., Genetic determinantsof serum prostate-specific antigen levels in healthy men from amultiethnic cohort. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 2001; 10:575-9. Theandrogen response element (ARE) I is a high affinity ARE in the PSAgene. Cleutjens et al., Two androgen response regions cooperate insteroid hormone regulated activity of the prostate-specific antigenpromoter. J Biol Chem 1996; 271:6379-88. Recently, genetic polymorphismin ARE I has been reported to be associated with PSA levels. Xue et al.,Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 2001. This polymorphism is a G/A change atposition -158 in the PSA gene, with approximately 50:50 ratios for thetwo alleles in Caucasians. Rao et al., Identification of a polymorphismin the ARE I region of the PSA promoter. Proc Amer Assn Cancer Res 1999;40:60. It was demonstrated that an association of the A allele occurswith increased serum PSA in healthy men. Cleutjens et al. Thispolymorphism has also been associated with increased risk for thedevelopment of prostate cancer. Xue et al., Susceptibility to prostatecancer: interaction between genotypes at the androgen receptor andprostate-specific antigen loci. Cancer Res 2000; 60:839-41; Medieros etal., Linkage between polymorphisms in the prostate specific antigen AREI gene region, prostate cancer risk, and circulating tumor cells.Prostate 2002; 53:88-94. Recent studies evaluated the association ofthis polymorphism with serum PSA in two separate study groups of menwithout prostate cancer and found no associations. Xu et al.,Association studies of serum prostate-specific antigen levels and thegenetic polymorphisms at the androgen receptor and prostate-specificantigen genes. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002; 11:664-9; Rao etal., Analysis of the G/A polymorphism in the androgen response element Iof the PSA gene and its interactions with the androgen receptorpolymorphisms. Urology 2002; 61:864-69.

ARE III is located in the 5′ upstream enhancer region centered at -4200.Cleutjens et al., An androgen response element in a far upstreamenhancer region is essential for high, androgen-regulated activity ofthe prostate-specific antigen promoter. Molec Endocrinol 1997;11:148-61; Schuur et al., Prostate-specific antigen expression isregulated by an upstream enhancer. J Biol Chem 1996: 7043-51; ARE I andARE III have been shown to have a high affinity for the androgenreceptor, while ARE II is a low affinity ARE; Xue et al., CancerEpidemiol Biomark Prev 2001; Huang et al., Cooperative assembly ofandrogen receptor into a nucleoprotein complex that regulates theprostate-specific antigen enhancer. J Biol Chem 1999; 274:25756-68;Schuur et al., Prostate-specific antigen expression is regulated by anupstream enhancer. J Biol Chem 1996: 7043-51; Pang et al., Prostatetissue specificity of the prostate-specific antigen promoter isolatedfrom a patient with prostate cancer. Hum Gene Therapy 1995; 6:1417-26;Zhang et al., Defining a functional androgen responsive element in the5′ far upstream flanking region of the prostate-specific antigen gene.Biochem Biophys Res Comm 1997; 231:784-8; and Zhang et al.,Identification of two novel cis-elements in the promoter of theprostate-specific antigen gene that are required to enhance androgenreceptor-mediated trans activation. Nucleic Acids Res 1997; 25:3143-50.Recent data demonstrates the presence of multiple high, medium, and lowaffinity AREs located in the upstream enhancer region between -3870 and-4366 of the PSA promoter. Huang et al. Few reports have evaluated thecontributions of sequences 5′ to -5322 of the PSA gene. This is duelargely to the presence of a unique Xba I restriction site at thislocation that is useful for cloning promoter constructs. Thus, it couldbe beneficial to locate previously unrecognized functional region of thePSA gene that contains polymorphisms with a significant impact on serumPSA in healthy men,

SUMMARY OF INVENTION

The present invention includes methods of identifying a subject at riskfor a genetic predisposition for increased cellular PSA production,comprising detecting the presence or absence of a mutation at position4643, 5412 and 5429 of the prostate specific antigene gene promoter inthe subject; and determining that the subject is at an increased risk ofa genetic predisposition for increased cellular PSA production due tothe presence or absence of the mutation in the prostate specificantigene gene promoter.

The present invention also includes methods of diagnosing prostatecancer or a genetic predisposition for developing prostate cancer in ahuman subject by providing a biological sample from the subject whereinthe sample encodes a promoter of the prostate specific antigen,detecting one or more mutations in the biological sample, anddetermining that the subject has at least one detected mutation in eachgenomic copy of the biological sample encoding the promoter of theprostate specific antigen, wherein the presence of at least one detectedmutation in each copy of the sequence encoding the promoter of theprostate specific antigen is diagnostic for prostate cancer or a geneticpredisposition for developing prostate cancer in the subject, andwherein the mutation occurs at position 4643, 5307, 5412 or 5429 in thepromoter of the prostate specific antigen gene,

The present invention also includes methods of identifying a subjectwith increased prostate serum level comprising detecting the presence orabsence of a mutation at position 4643, 5307, 5412 and 5429.

Additionally the present invention includes methods of producing anucleic acid molecule encoding an androgen responsive element III havinga mutation that is associated with prostate cancer, wherein the mutationat position 4643, 5307, 5412 or 5429 in the promoter of the prostatespecific antigen gene. Additionally, the present invention can includean oligonucleotide that hybridizing to the nucleic acid molecule.

The present invention also includes methods for detecting the presenceof a genetic polymorphism associated with an androgen responsive elementIII in a sample of patient nucleic acid, comprising amplifying anandrogen responsive promoter element gene sequence in the patientnucleic acid to produce an amplification product; and then identifyingthe presence of a genetic predisposition for increased cellular PSAproduction with the amplification product.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 illustrates the schematic structure and variance in the PSApromoter between −3875 to −5749. The base changes are depicted with themost common variant first. Numbers under the nucleotide variants are thelocation (or center when it is a polynucleotide repeat) relative to thesequence originally published. The putative AREs are depicted by shadedboxes. The relative scale in basepairs (bp) of each bar is indicated tothe lower right of each bar. Polymorphisms that are significantlyassociated (p<0.05) with age-adjusted serum PSA are depicted in bold.Those that are also boxed are strongly associated (p<0.01) withage-adjusted serum PSA and affect the functional activity of the PSApromoter constructs.

FIGS. 2A and 2B depict polymorphisms in the ARE III androgen responsiveregion that do not affect PSA promoter activity. These figuresillustrate LNCaP cells that were transiently transfected with luciferasereporter constructs and pCMV β-Gal and treated with increasingconcentrations of R1881 for 24 hrs. At the end of the incubation cellswere harvested and luciferase and β-Gal activities were determined asdescribed in the Materials and Methods section. Comparison ofdifferences between groups was performed by ANOVA, p≦0.05 was consideredsignificant. FIG. 2A shows a comparison of the −4289 SNP. FIG. 2B showsa comparison of the -4330 polycytosine repeat. The right panel shows thePSA promoter haplotypes used to drive luciferase expression. Thepolymorphism that differs between the two constructs is in bold andunderlined. The arrows denote the direction from 5′ to 3′. The gray boxdenotes the proximal PSA promoter and the approximate locations of theARE I and ARE II sites. The left panel shows the results of theluciferase assay normalized to β-Gal (Relative Light Units). Each pointrepresents the mean±standard error of 4 to 6 replicates. There are nosignificant differences between curves.

FIGS. 3A and 3B illustrate polymorphisms in the far upstream region ofthe PSA gene that affect promoter activity. FIG. 3A depicts a comparisonbetween the two alleles of the −4643 SNP. FIG. 3B shows a comparisonbetween the −5429/−5412 haplotypes. *** indicates the curves aresignificantly different by ANOVA at p≦0.001.

FIG. 4 illustrates PSA promoter haplotypes that are associated withage-adjusted serum PSA. The PSA promoter haplotypes were stratified byage and correlated with Log 10 transformed PSA as described in theMaterials and Methods section. Each bar represents the mean±standarderror. Numbers in bars indicate the number of subjects in each groupused for analysis. Numbers in parentheses indicate the p-value.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

The present invention provides a method of screening (e.g., diagnosingor prognosing) for diseases, such as prostate cancer in a subject. Thepresent invention relates to a method for the genetic diagnosis ofprostate cancer as well as to probes for the genetic diagnosis ofprostate cancer. The present invention also relates to methods ofdetecting increased PSA levels.

The term “Mutation” as used herein sometimes refers to a functionalpolymorphism that occurs in less than one percent of the population, andis strongly correlated to the presence of a gene (i.e., the presence ofsuch mutation indicating a high risk of the subject being afflicted witha disease). However, “mutation” is also used herein to refer to aspecific site and type of functional polymorphism, without reference tothe degree of risk that particular mutation poses to an individual for aparticular disease.

Subjects for screening and/or treatment with the present invention are,in general, human subjects, including male subjects. The subject may beof any race and any age, including juvenile, adolescent, and adult. Itwill be appreciated by those skilled in the art that, while the presentmethods are useful for screening subjects to provide an initialindication of the suitability of a patient for a particular treatment,this information will typically be considered by a clinician or medicalpractitioner in light of other factors and experience in reaching afinal judgment as to the treatment which any given subject shouldreceive.

Suitable subjects include those who have not previously been diagnosedas afflicted with prostate cancer, those who have previously beendetermined to be at risk of developing prostate cancer, and those whohave been initially diagnosed as being afflicted with prostate cancerwhere confirming information is desired. Thus, it is contemplated thatthe methods described herein be used in conjunction with other clinicaldiagnostic information known or described in the art which are used inevaluation of subjects with prostate cancer or suspected to be at riskfor developing such disease.

The detecting step may be carried out in accordance with knowntechniques, such as by collecting a biological sample containing DNAfrom the subject, and then determining the presence or absence of DNAencoding or indicative of the mutation in the biological sample. Anybiological sample which contains the DNA of that subject may beemployed, including tissue samples and blood samples, with blood cellsbeing a particularly Convenient source.

“Functional polymorphism” as used herein refers to a change in the basepair sequence of a gene that produces a qualitative or quantitativechange in the activity of the protein encoded by that gene (e.g., achange in specificity of activity; a change in level of activity). Thepresence of a functional polymorphism indicates that the subject is atgreater risk of developing a particular disease as compared to thegeneral population. For example, the patient carrying the functionalpolymorphism may be particularly susceptible to chronic exposure toenvironmental toxins that contribute to prostate cancer. The term“functional polymorphism” includes mutations, deletions and insertions.

In general, the step of detecting the polymorphism of interest may becarried out by collecting a biological sample containing DNA from thesubject, and then determining the presence or absence of DNA containingthe polymorphism of interest in the biological sample. Any biologicalsample which contains the DNA of that subject may be employed, includingtissue samples and blood samples, with blood cells being a particularlyconvenient source. The nucleotide sequence of the prostate specificantigen gene is known and suitable probes, restriction enzyme digestiontechniques, or other means of detecting the polymorphism may beimplemented based on this known sequence in accordance with standardtechniques. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,027,896 and 5,767,248 to A.Roses et al. (Applicants specifically intend that the disclosures of allUnited States patent references cited herein be incorporated byreference herein in their entirety).

Determining the presence or absence of DNA encoding a particularmutation may be carried out with an oligonucleotide probe labeled with asuitable detectable group, and/or by means of an amplification reactionsuch as a polymerase chain reaction or ligase chain reaction (theproduct of which amplification reaction may then be detected with alabeled oligonucleotide probe or a number of other techniques). Further,the detecting step may include the step of detecting whether the subjectis heterozygous or homozygous for the particular mutation. Numerousdifferent oligonucleotide probe assay formats are known which may beemployed to carry out the present invention.

See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,302,204 to Wahl et al.; U.S. Pat. No.4,358,535 to Falkow et al.; U.S. Pat. No. 4,563,419 to Ranki et al.; andU.S. Pat. No. 4,994,373 to Stavrianopoulos et al. (applicantsspecifically intend that the disclosures of all U.S. Patent referencescited herein be incorporated herein by reference).

Amplification of a selected, or target, nucleic acid sequence may becarried out by any suitable means. See generally, Kwoh et al., Am.Biotechnol. Lab. 8, 14-25 (1990). Examples of suitable amplificationtechniques include, but are not limited to, polymerase chain reaction,ligase chain reaction, strand displacement amplification (see generallyG. Walker et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, 392-396 (1992); G.Walker et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 20, 1691-1696 (1992)),transcription-based amplification (see D. Kwoh et al., Proc. Natl. AcadSci. USA 86, 1173-1177 (1989)), self-sustained sequence replication (or“3SR”) (see J. Guatelli et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87, 1874-1878(1990)), the Qβ replicase system (see P. Lizardi et al., Bio Technology6, 1197-1202 (1988)), nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (or“NASBA”) (see R. Lewis, Genetic Engineering News 12 (9), 1 (1992)), therepair chain reaction (or “RCR”) (see R. Lewis, supra), and boomerangDNA amplification (or “BDA”) (see R. Lewis, supra). Polymerase chainreaction is currently preferred.

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) may be carried out in accordance withknown techniques. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,683,195; 4,683,202;4,800,159; and 4,965,188. In general, PCR involves, first, treating anucleic acid sample (e.g., in the presence of a heat stable DNApolymerase) with one oligonucleotide primer for each strand of thespecific sequence to be detected under hybridizing conditions so that anextension product of each primer is synthesized which is complementaryto each nucleic acid strand, with the primers sufficiently complementaryto each strand of the specific sequence to hybridize therewith so thatthe extension product synthesized from each primer, when it is separatedfrom its complement, can serve as a template for synthesis of theextension product of the other primer, and then treating the sampleunder denaturing conditions to separate the primer extension productsfrom their templates if the sequence or sequences to be detected arepresent. These steps are cyclically repeated until the desired degree ofamplification is obtained. Detection of the amplified sequence may becarried out by adding to the reaction product an oligonucleotide probecapable of hybridizing to the reaction product (e.g., an oligonucleotideprobe of the present invention), the probe carrying a detectable label,and then detecting the label in accordance with known techniques, or bydirect visualization on a gel. Such probes may be from 5 to 500nucleotides in length, preferably 5 to 250, more preferably 5 to 100 or5 to 50 nucleic acids. When PCR conditions allow for amplification ofall allelic types, the types can be distinguished by hybridization withan allelic specific probe, by restriction endonuclease digestion, byelectrophoresis on denaturing gradient gels, or other techniques.

Ligase chain reaction (LCR) is also carried out in accordance with knowntechniques. See, e.g., R. Weiss, Science 254, 1292 (1991). In general,the reaction is carried out with two pairs of oligonucleotide probes:one pair binds to one strand of the sequence to be detected; the otherpair binds to the other strand of the sequence to be detected. Each pairtogether completely overlaps the strand to which it corresponds. Thereaction is carried out by, first, denaturing (e.g., separating) thestrands of the sequence to be detected, then reacting the strands withthe two pairs of oligonucleotide probes in the presence of a heat stableligase so that each pair of oligonucleotide probes is ligated together,then separating the reaction product, and then cyclically repeating theprocess until the sequence has been amplified to the desired degree.Detection may then be carried out in like manner as described above withrespect to PCR.

DNA amplification techniques such as the foregoing can involve the useof a probe, a pair of probes, or two pairs of probes which specificallybind to DNA containing the functional polymorphism, but do not bind toDNA that does not contain the functional polymorphism. Alternatively,the probe or pair of probes could bind to DNA that both does and doesnot contain the functional polymorphism, but produce or amplify aproduct (e.g., an elongation product) in which a detectable differencemay be ascertained (e.g., a shorter product, where the functionalpolymorphism is a deletion mutation). Such probes can be generated inaccordance with standard techniques from the known sequences of DNA inor associated with a gene linked to prostate cancer or from sequenceswhich can be generated from such genes in accordance with standardtechniques.

It will be appreciated that the detecting steps described herein may becarried out directly or indirectly. Other means of indirectlydetermining allelic type include measuring polymorphic markers that arelinked to the particular functional polymorphism, as has beendemonstrated for the VNTR (variable number tandem repeats).

Kits for determining if a subject is or was (in the case of deceasedsubjects) afflicted with or is or was at increased risk of developingprostate cancer will include at least one reagent specific for detectingfor the presence or absence of at least one functional polymorphism asdescribed herein and instructions for observing that the subject is orwas afflicted with or is or was at increased risk of developing prostatecancer if at least one of the functional polymorphisms is detected. Thekit may optionally include one or more nucleic acid probes for theamplification and/or detection of the functional polymorphism by any ofthe techniques described above, with PCR being currently preferred.

Molecular biology comprises a wide variety of techniques for theanalysis of nucleic acid and protein sequences. Many of these techniquesand procedures form the basis of clinical diagnostic assays and tests.These techniques include nucleic acid hybridization analysis,restriction enzyme analysis, genetic sequence analysis, and theseparation and purification of nucleic acids and proteins (See, e.g., J.Sambrook, E. F. Fritsch, and T. Maniatis, Molecular Cloning: ALaboratory Manual, 2 Ed., Cold spring Harbor Laboratory Press, ColdSpring Harbor, N.Y., 1989).

Most of these techniques involve carrying out numerous operations (e.g.,pipetting, centrifugation, and electrophoresis) on a large number ofsamples. They are often complex and time consuming, and generallyrequire a high degree of accuracy. Many a technique is limited in itsapplication by a lack of sensitivity, specificity, or reproducibility.

For example, the complete process for carrying out a DNA hybridizationanalysis for a genetic or infectious disease is very involved. Broadlyspeaking, the complete process may be divided into a number of steps andsub-steps. In the case of genetic disease diagnosis, the first stepinvolves obtaining the sample (e.g., saliva, blood or tissue). Dependingon the type of sample, various pre-treatments would be carried out. Thesecond step involves disrupting or lysing the cells which releases thecrude DNA material along with other cellular constituents.

Generally, several sub-steps are necessary to remove cell debris and tofurther purify the DNA from the crude sample. At this point severaloptions exist for further processing and analysis. One option involvesdenaturing the DNA and carrying out a direct hybridization analysis inone of many formats (dot blot, microbead, microplate, etc.). A secondoption, called Southern blot hybridization, involves cleaving the DNAwith restriction enzymes, separating the DNA fragments on anelectrophoretic gel, blotting the DNA to a membrane filter, and thenhybridizing the blot with specific DNA probe sequences. This procedureeffectively reduces the complexity of the genomic DNA sample, andthereby helps to improve the hybridization specificity and sensitivity.Unfortunately, this procedure is long and arduous. A third option is tocarry out an amplification procedure such as the polymerase chainreaction (PCR) or the strand displacement amplification (SDA) method.These procedures amplify (increase) the number of target DNA sequencesrelative to non-target sequences. Amplification of target DNA helps toovercome problems related to complexity and sensitivity in genomic DNAanalysis. After these sample preparation and DNA processing steps, theactual hybridization reaction is performed. Finally, detection and dataanalysis convert the hybridization event into an analytical result.

Nucleic acid hybridization analysis generally involves the detection ofa very small number of specific target nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) withan excess of probe DNA, among a relatively large amount of complexnon-target nucleic acids. A reduction in the complexity of the nucleicacid in a sample is helpful to the detection of low copy numbers (i.e.10,000 to 100,000) of nucleic acid targets. DNA complexity reduction isachieved to some degree by amplification of target nucleic acidsequences. (See, M. A. Innis et al., PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methodsand Applications, Academic Press, 1990, Spargo et al., 1996, Molecular &Cellular Probes, in regard to SDA amplification). This is becauseamplification of target nucleic acids results in an enormous number oftarget nucleic acid sequences relative to non-target sequences therebyimproving the subsequent target hybridization step.

The actual hybridization reaction represents one of the most importantand central steps in the whole process. The hybridization step involvesplacing the prepared DNA sample in contact with a specific reporterprobe at set optimal conditions for hybridization to occur between thetarget DNA sequence and probe.

Hybridization may be performed in any one of a number of formats. Forexample, multiple sample nucleic acid hybridization analysis has beenconducted in a variety of filter and solid support formats (See Beltz etal., Methods in Enzymology, Vol, 100, Part et al., Eds., Academic Press,New York, Chapter 19, pp. 266-308, 1985). One format, the so-called “dotblot” hybridization, involves the non-covalent attachment of target DNAsto a filter followed by the subsequent hybridization to a radioisotopelabeled probe(s). “Dot blot” hybridization gained wide-spread use overthe past two decades during which time many versions were developed (seeAnderson and Young, in Nucleic Acid Hybridization—A Practical Approach,Hames and Higgins, Eds., IRL Press, Washington, D.C. Chapter 4, pp.73-111, 1985). For example, the dot blot method has been developed formultiple analyses of genomic mutations (EPA 0228075 to Nanibhushan etal.) and for the detection of overlapping clones and the construction ofgenomic maps (U.S. Pat. No. 5,219,726 to Evans).

Additional techniques for carrying out multiple sample nucleic acidhybridization analysis include micro-formatted multiplex or matrixdevices (e.g., DNA chips) (see M. Barinaga, 253 Science, pp. 1489, 1991;W. Bains, 10 Bio/Technology, pp. 757-758, 1992). These methods usuallyattach specific DNA sequences to very small specific areas of a solidsupport, such as micro-wells of a DNA chip. These hybridization formatsare micro-scale versions of the conventional “dot blot” and “sandwich”hybridization systems.

The micro-formatted hybridization can be used to carry out “sequencingby hybridization” (SBH) (see M. Barinaga, 253 Science, pp. 1489, 1991;W. Bains, 10 Bio/Technology, pp. 757-758, 1992). SBH makes use of allpossible n-nucleotide oligomers (n-mers) to identify n-mers in anunknown DNA sample, which are subsequently aligned by algorithm analysisto produce the DNA sequence (See, Drmanac U.S. Pat. No. 5,202,231).

There are two formats for carrying out SBH. The first format involvescreating an array of all possible n-mers on a support, which is thenhybridized with the target sequence. The second format involvesattaching the target sequence to a support, which is sequentially probedwith all possible n-mers. Both formats have the fundamental problems ofdirect probe hybridizations and additional difficulties related tomultiplex hybridizations.

Southern, (United Kingdom Patent Application GB 8810400, 1988; E. M.Southern et al., 13 Genomics 1008, 1992), proposed using the firstformat to analyze or sequence DNA. Southern identified a known singlepoint mutation using PCR amplified genomic DNA. Southern also describeda method for synthesizing an array of oligonucleotides on a solidsupport for SBH. However, Southern did not address how to achieveoptimal stringency conditions for each oligonucleotide on an array.

Drmanac et al., (260 Science 1649-1652, 1993), used the second format tosequence several short (116 bp) DNA sequences. Target DNAs were attachedto membrane supports (“dot blot” format). Each filter was sequentiallyhybridized with 272 labeled 10-mer and 11-mer oligonucleotides. Wideranges of stringency conditions were used to achieve specifichybridization for each n-mer probe. Washing times varied from 5 minutesto overnight using temperatures from 0° C. to 16° C. Most probesrequired 3 hours of washing at 16° C. The filters had to be exposed from2 to 18 hours in order to detect hybridization signals. The overallfalse positive hybridization rate was 5% in spite of the simple targetsequences, the reduced set of oligomer probes, and the use of the moststringent conditions available.

Currently, a variety of methods are available for detection and analysisof the hybridization events. Depending on the reporter group(fluorophore, enzyme, radioisotope, etc.) used to label the DNA probe,detection and analysis are carried out fluorimetrically,colorimetrically, or by autoradiography. By observing and measuringemitted radiation, such as fluorescent radiation or particle emission,information may be obtained about the hybridization events. Even whendetection methods have very high intrinsic sensitivity, detection ofhybridization events is difficult because of the background presence ofnon-specifically bound materials. Thus, detection of hybridizationevents is dependent upon how specific and sensitive hybridization can bemade. Concerning genetic analysis, several methods have been developedthat have attempted to increase specificity and sensitivity.

One form of genetic analysis is analysis centered on elucidation ofsingle nucleic acid polymorphisms or (“SNPs”). Factors favoring theusage of SNPs are their high abundance in the human genome (especiallycompared to short tandem repeats, (STRs)), their frequent locationwithin coding or regulatory regions of genes (which can affect proteinstructure or expression levels), and their stability when passed fromone generation to the next (Landegren et al., Genome Research, Vol. 8,pp. 769-776, 1998).

A SNP is defined as any position in the genome that exists in twovariants and the most common variant occurs less than 99% of the time.In order to use SNPs as widespread genetic markers, it is crucial to beable to genotype them easily, quickly, accurately, and cost-effectively.It is of great interest to type both large sets of SNPs in order toinvestigate complex disorders where many loci factor into one disease(Risch and Merikangas, Science, Vol. 273, pp. 1516-1517, 1996), as wellas small subsets of SNPs previously demonstrated to be associated withknown afflictions.

Numerous techniques are currently available for typing SNPs (for review,see Landegren et al., Genome Research, Vol. 8, pp. 769-776, (1998), allof which require target amplification. They include direct sequencing(Carothers et al., BioTechniques, Vol. 7, pp. 494-499, 1989),single-strand conformation polymorphism (Orita et al., Proc. Natl. Acad.Sci. USA, Vol. 86, pp. 2766-2770, 1989), allele-specific amplification(Newton et al., Nucleic Acids Research, Vol. 17, pp. 2503-2516, (1989),restriction digestion (Day and Humphries, Analytical Biochemistry, Vol.222, pp. 389-395, 1994), and hybridization assays. In their most basicform, hybridization assays function by discriminating shortoligonucleotide reporters against matched and mismatched targets. Manyadaptations to the basic protocol have been developed. These includeligation chain reaction (Wu and Wallace, Gene, Vol. 76, pp. 245-254,1989) and minisequencing (Syvanen et al., Genomics, Vol. 8, pp. 684-692,1990). Other enhancements include the use of the 5′-nuclease activity ofTaq DNA polymerase (Holland et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, Vol. 88,pp. 7276-7280, 1991), molecular beacons (Tyagi and Kramer, NatureBiotechnology, Vol. 14, pp.303-308, 1996), heat denaturation curves(Howell et al., Nature Biotechnology, Vol. 17, pp. 87-88, 1999) and DNA“chips” (Wang et al., Science, Vol. 280, pp. 1077-1082, 1998).

An additional phenomenon that can be used to distinguish SNPs is thenucleic acid interaction energies or base-stacking energies derived fromthe hybridization of multiple target specific probes to a single target.(See, R. Ornstein et al., “An Optimized Potential Function for theCalculation of Nucleic Acid Interaction Energies”, Biopolymers, Vol. 17,2341-2360 (1978); J. Norberg and L. Nilsson, Biophysical Journal, Vol.74, pp. 394-402, (1998); and J. Pieters et al., Nucleic Acids Research,Vol. 17, no. 12, pp. 4551-4565 (1989)). This base-stacking phenomenon isused in a unique format in the current invention to provide highlysensitive Tm differentials allowing the direct detection of SNPs in anucleic acid sample.

Additional methods have been used to distinguish nucleic acid sequencesin related organisms or to sequence DNA. For example, U.S. Pat. No.5,030,557 by Hogan et al. disclosed that the secondary and tertiarystructure of a single stranded target nucleic acid may be affected bybinding “helper” oligonucleotides in addition to “probe”oligonucleotides causing a higher Tm to be exhibited between the probeand target nucleic acid. That application however was limited in itsapproach to using hybridization energies only for altering the secondaryand tertiary structure of self-annealing RNA strands which if leftunaltered would tend to prevent the probe from hybridizing to thetarget.

With regard to DNA sequencing, K. Khrapko et al., Federation of EuropeanBiochemical Societies Letters, Vol. 256, no. 1, 2, pp. 118-122 (1989),for example, disclosed that continuous stacking hybridization resultedin duplex stabilization. Additionally, J. Kieleczawa et al., Science,Vol. 258, pp. 1787-1791 (1992), disclosed the use of contiguous stringsof hexamers to prime DNA synthesis wherein the contiguous stringsappeared to stabilize priming. Likewise, L. Kotler et al., Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. USA, Vol. 90, pp. 4241-4245, (1993) disclosed sequencespecificity in the priming of DNA sequencing reactions by use of hexamerand pentamer oligonucleotide modules. Further, S. Parinov et al.,Nucleic Acids Research, Vol. 24, no. 15, pp. 2998-3004, (1996),disclosed the use of base-stacking oligomers for DNA sequencing inassociation with passive DNA sequencing microchips. Moreover, G. Yershovet al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, Vol. 93, pp. 4913-4918 (1996),disclosed the application of base-stacking energies in SBH on a passivemicrochip. In Yershov's example, 10-mer DNA probes were anchored to thesurface of the microchip and hybridized to target sequences inconjunction with additional short probes, the combination of whichappeared to stabilize binding of the probes. In that format, shortsegments of nucleic acid sequence could be elucidated for DNAsequencing. Yershov further noted that in their system the destabilizingeffect of mismatches was increased using shorter probes (e.g., 5-mers).Use of such short probes in DNA sequencing provided the ability todiscern the presence of mismatches along the sequence being probedrather than just a single mismatch at one specified location of theprobe/target hybridization complex. Use of longer probes (e.g., 8-mer,10-mer, and 13-mer oligos) were less functional for such purposes.

An additional example of methodologies that have used base-stacking inthe analysis of nucleic acids includes U.S. Pat. No. 5,770,365 by Laneet al., wherein is disclosed a method of capturing nucleic acid targetsusing a unimolecular capture probe having a single stranded loop and adouble stranded region which acts in conjunction with a binding targetto stabilize duplex formation by stacking energies.

Despite the knowledge of base-stacking phenomenon, applications asdescribed above have not resulted in commercially acceptable methods orprotocols for either DNA sequencing or the detection of SNPs forclinical purposes. We provide herein such a commercially useful methodfor making such distinctions in numerous genetic and medicalapplications by combining the use of base-stacking principles andelectronically addressable microchip formats.

Kits useful for carrying out the methods of the present invention will,in general, comprise one or more oligonucleotide probes and otherreagents for carrying out the methods as described above, such asrestriction enzymes, optionally packaged with suitable instructions forcarrying out the methods.

The present invention also provides a method of conducting a clinicaltrial on a plurality of human subjects or patients. Such methodsadvantageously permit the refinement of the patient population so thatadvantages of particular treatment regimens (typically administration ofpharmaceutically active organic compound active agents) can be moreaccurately detected, particularly with respect to particularsub-populations of patients. In general, such methods compriseadministering a test active agent or therapy to a plurality of subjects(a control or placebo therapy typically being administered to a separatebut similarly characterized plurality of subjects) and detecting thepresence or absence of at least one mutation or polymorphism asdescribed above in the plurality of subjects. The polymorphisms may bedetected before, after, or concurrently with the step of administeringthe test therapy. The influence of one or more detected polymorphisms orabsent polymorphisms on the test therapy can then be determined on anysuitable parameter or potential treatment outcome or consequence,including but not limited to: the efficacy of the therapy, lack of sideeffects of the therapy, etc.

In describing the mutations disclosed herein in the novel proteinsdescribed herein, and the nucleotides encoding the same, the namingmethod is as follows: [nucleic acid replaced] [nucleic acid number insequence of known sequence] [alternate nucleic acid]. For example, forthe 4643^(rd) position is guanine and is replaced with an adenine.

Embodiments of the present invention further characterize the PSA genefor polymorphisms and determine the associations of these polymorphismswith serum PSA. Previous work by Xue et al. suggested a role for the PSA−158 SNP in modulating serum PSA in men without prostatic disease. Inthat study, the −158 AA genotype was associated with higher serum PSAlevels relative to the PSA levels in subjects with the −158 AG or GGgenotypes. However, others were not able to reproduce these results, andfunctional studies found no role for the -158 SNP in regulating PSApromoter activity.

Embodiments of the present invention illustrate that the linkagedisequilibrium and haplotype analyses demonstrate that the −158 A alleleis exclusively linked to the far upstream haplotype that is associatedwith lower serum PSA and has lower functional activity in vitro. The−158 G allele can be distributed between both the weak and strong farupstream haplotypes. This difference in distribution between the −158 Gand A alleles with weak and strong haplotypes in the far upstream regionof the PSA gene can result in the association of the −158 SNP with serumPSA observed by Xue et al.

Embodiments of the present invention include 3 SNPs that were associatedwith serum PSA. An A/G SNP at -4643 had a 19.6% prevalence (G allele),and was associated with a 15-30% increase in serum PSA (p=0.017), andluciferase reporter assays demonstrated a 20-30% increase in promoteractivity. A T/C SNP at −5412 had a 21.6% prevalence (C allele), and wasvery strongly associated with a 20-40% increase in serum PSA (p=0.0015).The third SNP at −5429 (T/G) was in strong linkage disequilibrium withthe −5412 SNP. The G allele had a 21.4% prevalence and was stronglyassociated with a 30-40% increase in serum PSA (p=0.021). Luciferasereporter assays demonstrated that the −5412 C/−5429 G haplotype had20-30% greater promoter activity relative to the −5412 T/−5429 Thaplotype. Additionally, men with AG or GG genotypes at the SNP −5307A/Ghave statistically significantly higher PSA levels than men with an AAgenotype.

As noted above, the present invention includes methods of identifying asubject at risk for a genetic predisposition for increased cellular PSAproduction, comprising detecting the presence or absence of a mutationat position 4643, 5307, 5412 and 5429 of the prostate specific antigengene promoter in the subject; and determining that the subject is at anincreased risk of a genetic predisposition for increased cellular PSAproduction due to the presence or absence of the mutation in theprostate specific antigen gene promoter. The test for a geneticpredisposition for increased cellular PSA production may also identifysubjects at risk for prostate cancer. Thus, both healthy and affectedsubjected may be tested.

The present invention also includes methods of diagnosing prostatecancer or a genetic predisposition for developing prostate cancer in ahuman subject by providing a biological sample from the subject whereinthe sample encodes a promoter of the prostate specific antigen,detecting one or more mutations in the biological sample, anddetermining that the subject has at least one detected mutation in eachgenomic copy of the biological sample encoding the promoter of theprostate specific antigen, wherein the presence of at least one detectedmutation in each copy of the sequence encoding the promoter of theprostate specific antigen is diagnostic for prostate cancer or a geneticpredisposition for developing prostate cancer in the subject, andwherein the mutation occurs at position 4643, 5307, 5412 or 5429 in thepromoter of the prostate specific antigen gene. The lack of mutations inthe prostate specific antigen can indicate that a subject is at areduced risk of developing prostate cancer.

The present invention also includes methods of identifying a subjectwith increased prostate serum level comprising detecting the presence orabsence of a mutation at position 4643, 5307, 5412 and 5429. The overallsurvival rate of prostate cancer patients with elevated serum levels issignificantly lower than those with normal or decreased serum levels.Therefore, increased prostate serum levels can indicate a risk ofdevelopment of prostate cancer. Thus, the present invention can includea test for increased serum levels to determine if a subject is at anincreased or reduced risk of prostate cancer.

The present invention also includes methods for detecting the presenceof a genetic polymorphism associated with an androgen responsive elementIII in a sample of patient nucleic acid, comprising amplifying anandrogen responsive promoter element gene sequence in the patientnucleic acid to produce an amplification product; and then identifyingthe presence of a genetic predisposition for increased cellular PSAproduction with the amplification product. These methods allow for theidentification of additional mutants in an androgen responsive promoterelement.

The present invention is explained in greater detail in the followingnon-limiting examples.

EXAMPLES

Association of Sequence Variants in the ARE III Region with Serum PSALevels

The androgen responsive ARE III region is located between −3800 to −4300in the PSA gene. Direct sequencing of this region of PCR products frompreviously reported group of subjects identified 2 polymorphisms in thisregion (FIG, 1). Neither of these polymorphisms is reported in the NCBISNP database. SNP −4289A/C is located in the low affinity, non-consensusARE termed ARE VI. The allele C of this SNP, with an estimated frequencyof 0.20, was associated with elevated PSA levels. Men with AC or CCgenotypes at this SNP have significantly higher PSA levels than men withAA genotype (P=0.017, age adjusted, Table 1). Excluding men with PSA of9.0 ng/ml or higher did not significantly affect this result (P=0.028,Table 1) The other polymorphism in this region is a polycytosine tractthat varied between 8 and 9 nucleotides in length and was centered at−4330 in the PSA promoter (FIG. 1). This polymorphism was not inHardy-Weinberg equilibrium in our study subjects. Therefore, noassociation tests were performed for this variant.

TABLE 1 Frequencies of SNPs in PSA promoter region among white studysubjects (N = 409)* Nucleotide Percentage of chromosome carryingLocation of SNP† change SNP in Caucasians (N)‡ −5567: AY283612 G to A9.16 (74/808) −5501: AY283614 T to C 2.23 (17/762) −5466: AY283615 G toA 1.97 (15/761) −5429: rs2569733 T to G 23.0 (186/808) −5412: rs2739448T to C 22.0 (176/802) −5307: rs266868 G to A 39.8 (240/806) −5217:rs266867 T to A 9.23 (74/802) −4643: rs925013 A to G 21.2 (171/806)−4289: AY283613 A to C 20.9 (171/818)

Association of SNPs in the Far Upstream Region of the PSA Promoter withSerum PSA Levels

The present study includes a sequencing of the remaining 1.2 kb of the5′ region of PCR amplified DNA from 20 subjects. This analysisidentified an additional 6 relatively common SNPs, a poly-adenosinetract that varied between 9 and 22 A′s, and several less frequentvariants (Table 2, FIG. 1). Five of the common SNPs are present in theNCBI SNP database (Table 1), the remainder are previously unreportedSNPs. The entire spectrum of variants is depicted in FIG. 1. Thefrequencies of SNPs are listed in Table 2. Only the 6 relatively commonSNPs were evaluated for association with serum PSA. Two SNPs (−5217A/Tand −5567A/G) had no statistically significant association with serumPSA. Men with AG or GG genotypes at the SNP −5307A/G have statisticallysignificantly higher PSA levels than men with AA genotype (P=0.017, ageadjusted, Table 1).

TABLE 2 Serum PSA levels and sequence variants in PSA gene promoterregion among the white study subjects * log10(PSA) PSA geometricSNP/Genotype † N Mean SD mean P ‡ P § P ∥ −158:rs266882 (ARE I)** GG 109−0.026 0.40 0.94 GA 215 0.079 0.40 1.20 AA 96 0.008 0.39 1.02 .061 .06   .12   −4289:AY283613 (ARE VI) AA 256 −0.006 0.39 0.99 AC 135 0.1120.41 1.29 CC 18 0.062 0.48 1.15 .021  .017  .028  −4643:rs925013 (Nco I)AA 250 0.0004 0.39 1.00 AG 135 0.122 0.39 1.32 GG 18 0.062 0.48 1.15.017  .0095 .015  −5217:rs266867 TT 331 0.049 0.40 1.12 TA 66 0.049 0.421.12 AA 4 −0.33 0.46 0.47 .18   .46   .86  −5307:rs266868 GG 198 0.090.42 1.23 GA 170 0.004 0.38 1.01 AA 35 −0.017 0.39 0.96 .074  .017 .035  −5412:rs2739448 (BstUI) TT 246 −0.012 0.38 0.97 TC 134 0.141 0.411.38 CC 21 0.076 0.49 1.19 .0015 <.001   .0045 −5429:rs2569733 (Fok I)TT 245 0.005 0.40 1.01 TG 132 0.118 0.39 1.31 GG 27 0.086 0.44 1.22.021  .009  .012  −5567:AY283612 GG 334 0.057 0.41 1.14 GA 66 −0.0150.34 0.97 AA 4 0.03 0.41 1.07 .41   .44   .8   

The remaining 3 SNPs (−4643A/G, 5412T/C, and −5429T/G) were stronglyassociated with serum PSA levels (Table 1). The G allele of the SNP−4643A/G, with an estimated frequency of 0.21, was associated withincreased PSA levels. Men with GA or GG genotypes at this SNP havesignificantly higher PSA levels than men with AA genotype (P=0.0095, ageadjusted). Luciferase reporter assays demonstrated that the G allele at−4643 was more potent as a promoter than the A allele at -4643, at allandrogen levels tested (FIG. 3A). This difference in promoter activitywas between 18 and 40% depending on the androgen concentration(P<0.001).

The C allele of the SNP −5412T/C, with an estimated frequency of 0.22,was associated with elevated PSA levels. Men with TC or CC genotypes atthis SNP have significantly higher PSA levels than men with TT genotype(P=0.0009, age adjusted). Similarly, the G allele of the SNP -5429T/G,with an estimated frequency of 0.21, was also associated with higher PSAlevels. Men with TG or GG genotypes at this SNP have significantlyhigher PSA levels than men with TT genotype (P=0.009, age adjusted).Excluding samples with PSA of 9.0 or greater did not significantlyaffect the association results for either of these SNPs. FIG. 3Bdemonstrates that the G-C haplotype conferred significantly greaterpromoter activity than the T-T haplotype (P=0,001).

Comprehensive Assessment of Associations of Multiple PSA Gene PromoterPolymorphisms with Serum PSA Levels

The three promoter SNPs (−4643A/G, −5412T/C, and −5429T/G) were testedfor whether a combination of these sequence variants impose a strongerassociation with serum PSA levels. As shown below in Table 3, thereexisted only two major haplotypes in the study population, either ahaplotype with all three alleles associated with higher PSA levels andpromoter activities (−5429G/−5412C/−4643G), with an estimated frequencyof 0.20, or a haplotype with all three alleles associated with lower PSAlevels and promoter activities (−5429T/−5412T/−4643A), with an estimatedfrequency of 0.77. The effect of the haplotypes on the association ofPSA levels was estimated. The results are depicted in FIG. 4. Men withat least one copy of the G-C-G haplotype had 35% higher PSA levels thanmen with homozygous T-T-A haplotype (P=0.004, adjusted for age). Thistrend was observed in each of the four age decades (FIG. 4).

TABLE 3 Association of PSA promoter haplotypes and serum PSA levels*Haplotype −5429 −5412 −4643 Frequency Score test† (P) ‡ 1 T T A 0.77−3.33 (<.001) 2 G C G 0.2 2.51 (.009) 3 G C A 0.01 0.43 (.65) Global13.84 (.003) *PSA = prostate-specific antigen. †HAPLOSCORE programstatistic ‡The P-value of a χ² test of score statistic. Adjusted forage.

Pairwise linkage disequilibrium demonstrated that nearly all of themajor PSA promoter SNPs are in strong linkage disequilibrium (Table 4).This includes the −158 SNP with farther upstream SNPs. The exception tothis is the T/A −5217 SNP with G/A −5567 and A/C −4289. We nextdetermined the major haplotypes of the 3 SNPs that had significantassociation with serum PSA and the −158 SNP. The data demonstrated thatbetween these 4 SNPs there are 3 haplotypes that account for 97% of thePSA gene sequences evaluated in the study population. The A −158 SNP isexclusively linked with a single haplotype that has T, T, A at positions−5429, −5412, −4643, respectively. 62% of the G −158 SNP is linked withthis same T −5429, T −5412, A −4643 haplotype in the far upstreamenhancer. The remaining 38% is linked with the G −5429, C −5412, G −4643haplotype.

TABLE 4 Pair-wise test of linkage disequilibrium of SNPs in the PSA genepromoter * (−5567) (−5429) (−5412) (−5307) (−5217) (−4643) (−4289)(−158) (−5567) 1.000 1.000 0.975 0.433 1.000 1.000 1.000 (−5429)  .0160.968 1.000 1.000 0.958 0.963 0.834 (−5412)  .010  .000 1.000 1.0000.938 0.941 0.847 (−5307)  .000  .000  .000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.426(−5217) 1.000  .010  .004  .012 1.000 1.000 1.000 (−4643)  .007  .000 .000  .000  .040 1.000 1.000 (−4289)  .018  .000  .000  .000  .096 .000 0.960 (−158)  .000  .000  .000  .000  .000  .000  .000 * Upperright cells above the blank diagonal show the absolute value ofLewontin's D', an estimate the strength of pairwise linkagedisequilibrium, and lower left cells below the blank diagonal show theassociated P values. SNPs = single nulcleotide polumorphisms; PSA =prostate-specific antigen.

Materials and Methods

Subjects

The subjects consisted of 518 male painters, plumbers, pipefitters,heavy equipment operators, and electricians in which PSA levels wereassessed to determine the risk of prostate cancer after asbestosexposure. All subjects gave informed consent, received a physicalexamination, and complete medical and occupational history wereobtained. Whole blood collected at the time of examination was used forDNA isolation and determination of serum PSA levels. 49 subjects wereAfrican-American and were excluded from the present study. 27 patientswere excluded from the present study due to the presence of prostatecancer. 14 patients were excluded because of undetectable PSA (≦0.1ng/ml). 19 DNA samples failed to yield a PCR product in the targetregion or there was insufficient DNA for amplification. The analyseswere conducted on the remaining 409 samples. The mean age was 63.7 andthe median PSA was 1.01 ng/ml (range: 0.14-20.7 ng/ml). 71 subjects havePSA≧2.5 ng/ml, 36 subjects have PSA≧4 ng/ml, and 11 subjects have PSA≧9ng/ml.

PCR Amplifications

Nested PCR was used to amplify a 1.9 kb region of the PSA geneencompassing nucleotides -3875 to -5749 relative to the transcriptionstart site using the numbering of the PSA gene reported by Schuur et al.Between 25-70 ng of genomic DNA derived from peripheral lymphocytes wasused as a template in a 100 μl PCR reaction volume. In the first set ofreactions, each tube contained 1× Thermophillic DNA Polymerase buffer(Promega, Madison, Wis.), 2.5 mM MgCl₂, 100 μM of each dNTP (Promega,Madison, Wis.), 150 nM of each primer, 5 U Taq DNA Polymerase (Promega,Madison, Wis.) and 0.2 U Vent DNA polymerase (New England Biolabs,Beverley, Mass.). The sequence of the 5′ primer was:5′TTTGGCAGTGGAGTGCTGC 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 1). The sequence of the 3′ primerwas: 5′GCTTTGGAATATCCCTGCCAG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 2). In the nested set of PCRreactions 10 μl of the first reaction was used as template with internal5′ primer 5′ATGAATTCGTCGACCACAGTGTAATGCCATCCAGG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 3) and 3′primer 5′ATAGGATCCAGACTGTCCTGCAGACAAGG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 4) whichintroduced unique Sal I or Bam HI restriction sites, respectively(underlined). In the first set of reactions, the samples were heated to94° C. for 5 min, then 80° C. for 10 min. After 1 min at 80° C. DNApolymerase was added. Subsequent to this, 30 amplification reactionswere carried out as follows: 95° C., 1 min; 50° C., 1 min; 72° C., 1min. A final extension was performed at 72° C. for 7 minutes. Allreaction conditions were identical in the nested amplification exceptthat after the 10 min incubation at 80° C. an initial 3 cycles of 94°C., 1 min; 50° C., 1 min; 72° C., 1 min were performed followed by 27cycles of 94° C., 1 min; 58° C., 1 min; and 72° C., 1 min. Samples werestored at 4° C. until they were used. This PCR reaction was useddirectly for genotyping by sequencing or RFLP analysis and forsubcloning for luciferase reporter constructs as described below.

Genotyping by DNA Sequencing

Sequence variants were identified by DNA sequencing PCR products(generated as described above) from 20 random DNA samples from our studysubjects. DNA sequencing was performed using the ABI BigDye Terminatorsequencing kit (Applied Biosystems, Inc., Foster City, Calif.). Eachplate contained DNA subjects with various phenotypes (subjects withhigher or lower PSA levels), as well as two known samples sequenced induplicate and two blanks. Each 10 μl sequencing reaction contained 10-50ng of purified PCR product, 1.5 pmoles of sequencing primer, 1 μl ofBigDye Terminator mix, 1.5 μl of 5× sequencing dilution buffer (400 mMTris pH 9.0, 10 mM MgCl₂) and water to volume. Cycling conditions were94° for 1 min; 25 cycles of 94° C. for 30 sec, 50° C. for 30 sec, and60° C. for 4 min; and finishing with a single 72° C. extension step for5 min. Sequencing products were ethanol precipitated, air-dried,resuspended in 25 μl ddH₂O, and analyzed on an ABI 3700 DNA Analyzer.DNA sequencing data were aligned and polymorphisms identified usingSequencher DNA analysis software (Gene Codes Corporation, Ann Arbor,Mich.). Primers used for sequencing were 5′ CCTTCAGGTGAACAAAGG 3′ (SEQID NO: 5),

5′ AGACCAGGGACACTCTGG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 6), 5′ TCACATTAGTACACCTTGCCC 3 (SEQID NO: 7)′, 5′ TAGACTGCTCTGGTCACCC 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 8), 5′GGACAGGGACATCAGGCC 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 9), 5′ GCTTTGGAATATCCTGCCAG 3′ (SEQ IDNO: 10). The 5′ and 3′ ends were sequenced with the internal PCR primersfor direct sequencing of PCR products, or T3 and T7 primers forsequencing pBluescript clones.

Nco I Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism Analysis

Ten μl of the PCR products were digested to completion (greater than 3hrs) with Nco I (Promega, Madison, Wis.) restriction enzyme according tothe manufacturer's recommended conditions. Digested products werefractionated on 1% agarose gels and visualized by ethidium bromidestaining. Intact PCR product was run in a parallel lane as a control.The presence of a recognition site for the variable Nco I site (G atnucleotide -4643) results in the formation of three bands of 1100, 700and 100 bp.

Luciferase Reporter Constructs

DNA samples from individuals homozygous for specific SNPs wereidentified by sequencing as described above and were used as template toclone specific desired haplotypes. Lymphocyte DNA PCR reaction productswere digested sequentially with Sal I and Bam HI (Promega, Madison,Wis.) and cloned into the Sal I and Bam HI sites of pBluescript SKII(Promega, Madison, Wis.). Plasmid DNA was isolated from positive clonesfor nucleic acid sequence analysis as described above. The nucleotidesequence from the cloned product was compared to the deduced sequencefrom the PCR product. Only clones that were identical to the genomicsequence were used for subsequent steps. After sequence verification thepositive clones were digested with Kpn I and Sac I (Promega, Madison,Wis.), whose sites flank the 1.9 kb insert. The inserts were subclonedinto the luciferase reporter vector pGL3Basic (Promega, Madison, Wis.)at the Kpn I and Sac I sites of the vector. The pGL3Basic vector used tomake the constructs had at the Hind III site a 525 base pair fragment ofthe proximal PSA promoter, including ARE I (-158 G allele), ARE II andthe transcription start site driving reporter gene expression. All finalreporter constructs were validated by nucleotide sequencing.

Luciferase Assays

All experiments were conducted using the prostate cancer cell line LNCaP(American Type Culture Collection, Rockville, Md.). Briefly, the cellswere plated at 1.5×10⁵ cells/well in 6-well tissue culture plates inRPMI 1640 supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum. Forty-eight hr laterthe medium was removed from each well and 1 ml of Lipofectamine(Invitrogen Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.) and plasmid cocktailwere added to each well. This amount of cocktail contains 1.25 μg ofluciferase reporter plasmid DNA, 0.25 μg of pCMV-β-gal plasmid DNA (tocontrol transfection efficiency), and 8 μl of Lipofectamine reagent.After 5 hr of incubation the transfection cocktail was removed, andfresh medium (RPMI-1640 supplemented with 10% charcoal stripped fetalbovine serum) was added to the cells. Twenty-four hr after transfectionthe cells were switched to experimental media containing the indicateddoses of synthetic androgen R1881 (NEN Life Science Products, Inc.Boston, Mass.), and allowed to incubate an additional 24 hr. At the endof the 24 hr incubation cell lysates were made using the cell lysisbuffer provided in the Promega luciferase assay kit (Promega, Madison,Wis.) and luciferase activity was measured in a Turner 2D luminometerusing 20 μl of lysate and the protocol provided with the Promegaluciferase assay kit (Promega, Madison, Wis.).

To control for transfection efficiency β-gal expression plasmid wasincluded in the transfection cocktail (see above). A 5 μl aliquot ofeach transfection lysate was used to measure β-gal expression byincubating for 1.5 hrs at 37° C., with 100 μl ofo-nitrophenyl-b-D-galactopyranoside buffer (200 mM sodium phosphatebuffer, pH 7.3, 2 mM MgCl₂, 100 mM β-Mercaptoethanol, 1.33 mg/mlo-nitrophenyl-b-D-galactopyranoside). The reaction was terminated with100 μl of 1M sodium carbonate and absorbance at 405 nm was determined ona Molecular Devices microtiter plate reader (Molecular Devices, PaloAlto, Calif.). A standard curve was constructed using varying amounts ofa cell extract from LNCaP cells transfected with pCMV-β-gal. Eachstandard and unknown was assayed in duplicate. The unknown values wereinterpolated from the linear range of the standard curve using theSoftMax program provided by the manufacturer of the microtiter platereader. One β-gal unit is defined as 2 μl of standard cell extract. Eachexperimental condition was performed in 6 replicate wells (2 wells oneach of 3 separate culture plates). The experiments were repeated twice.Results of a representative experiment are expressed as themean±standard error (luminometer units per unit of β-gal expression).

Statistical Methods

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium tests for all genotyped SNPs, and pair-wiselinkage disequilibrium tests for all pairs of genotyped SNPs, wereperformed among Caucasian subjects using the GDA computer program andSAS/Genetics (2002). Weir B. Genetic data analysis II:Methods fordiscrete population genetic data. Boston, Mass.: Sinauer Association,Inc.; 1996. The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium tests are based on exacttests, where a large number of the possible arrays are generated bypermuting the alleles among genotypes, and the proportion of thesepermuted genotypic arrays that have a smaller conditional probabilitythan the original data is calculated. Tests for pair-wise linkagedisequilibrium are based on an exact test assuming multinomialprobability of the multilocus genotype, conditional on the single-locusgenotype. A Monte Carlo simulation was used to assess the significance,by permuting the single-locus genotypes among individuals in the sampleto simulate the null distribution. The empirical p-values of both theHardy-Weinberg equilibrium and linkage disequilibrium tests were basedon 10,000 replicate samples. The Lewontin's D′ was used to estimatestrength of pair-wise linkage disequilibrium. Devlin B, Risch N. Acomparison of linkage disequilibrium measures for fine-scale mapping.Genomics 1995; 29:311-22.

PSA levels were log 10 transformed because the distribution of serum PSAlevels deviated significantly from a normal distribution (Kolomogorov Dstatistics=0.24; P<0.01). After log transformation, the distributionapproached normality but remained significantly different from a normaldistribution (D=0.09; P<0.01). ANOVA tests were performed to test fordifferences in mean log PSA levels among men with different genotypesfor each SNP. Multiple regression models were used to estimate theeffects of the genotypes, with either dominant or recessive models,adjusted for the variation of age. To decrease the potential populationstratification, all analyses were limited to Caucasians.

Haplotype frequency was estimated using the statistical method proposedby Stephens et al., as implemented in the computer program PHASE.Stephens M, Smith N J, Donnelly P. A new statistical method forhaplotype reconstruction from population data. Am J Hum Genet 2001;68:978-89. Association between the haplotypes and serum PSA wasperformed using a score test developed by Schaid et al., as implementedin the computer program HAPLO.SCORE for the S-PLUS programming languageor for the R programming language). Schaid et al., Score tests forassociation between traits and haplotypes when linkage phase isambiguous. Am J Hum Genet 2002; 70:425-34. Age variation was modeled inthe haplotype score test.

Comparisons of transfection data were conducted using a two-way ANOVAcontrolling for R1881 dose and haplotype of the expression construct,with post-hoc analysis by Tukey-Kramer test. P≦0.05 was consideredsignificant.

The foregoing is illustrative of the present invention, and is not to beconstrued as limiting thereof. The invention is defined by the followingclaims, with equivalents of the claims to be included therein.

1. A method of screening a human male subject for increased risk ofprostate cancer, comprising: detecting the presence or absence of amutation at position −4643, −5307, −5412 or −5429 in the promoter of theprostate specific antigen (PSA) gene in a biological sample collectedfrom said subject; and, if the mutation is present, determining that thesubject is at an increased risk of prostate cancer due to the presenceof said mutation in the PSA gene.
 2. The method according to claim 1,wherein said mutation is at position −4643 in the promoter of the PSAgene, and wherein a G at said position −4643 indicates increased risk ofprostate cancer.
 3. The method according to claim 1, wherein saidmutation is at position −5307 in the promoter of the PSA gene, andwherein a G at said position −5307 indicates increased risk of prostatecancer.
 4. The method according to claim 1, wherein said mutation is atposition −5412 in the promoter of the PSA gene, and wherein a C at saidposition −5412 indicates increased risk of prostate cancer.
 5. Themethod according to claim 1, wherein said mutation is at position −5429in the promoter of the PSA gene, and wherein a G at said position −5429indicates increased risk of prostate cancer.
 6. The method of claim 1,wherein the detecting step includes a probe hybridization step.
 7. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the detecting step includes a nucleic acidamplification step.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the detecting stepincludes a restriction enzyme digestion step.
 9. The method of claim 1,wherein said detecting step further comprises detecting whether saidsubject is homozygous for said mutation.
 10. A method of diagnosingprostate cancer or a genetic predisposition for developing prostatecancer in a human male subject, comprising: providing a biologicalsample from the subject, wherein said sample comprises a nucleic acidcomprising a promoter of the prostate specific antigen (PSA) gene; anddetecting whether the subject has one or more mutations at position−4643, −5307, −5412 or −5429 in the promoter of the PSA gene, whereinthe presence of one or more mutations at position −4643, −5307, −5412 or−5429 in the promoter of the PSA gene is diagnostic for prostate canceror a genetic predisposition for developing prostate cancer in thesubject.
 11. The method according to claim 10, wherein said mutation isat position −4643 in the promoter of the PSA gene, and wherein a G atsaid position −4643 indicates increased risk of prostate cancer.
 12. Themethod according to claim 10, wherein said mutation is at position −5307in the promoter of the PSA gene, and wherein a G at said position −5307indicates increased risk of prostate cancer.
 13. The method according toclaim 10, wherein said mutation is at position −5412 in the promoter ofthe PSA gene, and wherein a C at said position −5412 indicates increasedrisk of prostate cancer.
 14. The method according to claim 10, whereinsaid mutation is at position −5429 in the promoter of the PSA gene, andwherein a G at said position −5429 indicates increased risk of prostatecancer.
 15. The method of claim 10, wherein said detecting step furthercomprises detecting whether said subject is homozygous for said one ormore mutations.
 16. The method of claim 10, wherein the nucleic acid isgenomic DNA.
 17. The method of claim 10, wherein said detecting stepcomprises detecting two or more of said mutations.
 18. The method ofclaim 10, wherein the detecting step includes a probe hybridizationstep.
 19. The method of claim 10, wherein the detecting step includes anucleic acid amplification step.
 20. The method of claim 10, wherein thedetecting step includes a restriction enzyme digestion step.